Ethics Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethics Critique - Essay Example If the drivers are well understood, it is possible to justify the moral judgment using psychological research. However, some people will make moral judgment without being driven by anything but out of other factors such as influence. Sometimes, it may be impossible to differentiate if the decision was made for given motives or out of influence. In such cases, it becomes impossible to use psychological research to justify the moral judgment. This essay argues that the capability of psychological research to justify moral judgment depends on whether the motives and factors leading the judgment are understood. Psychological research which explains how human beings make moral judgments can be used to justify a given judgment or action. Although there is no clear reason, why people make certain choices and not others, people will tend to justify their actions depending on the circumstances. In Greene’s (363) opinion, humans wish to make judgments based on reasoning. However, most o f them end up making their decisions based on emotions. Therefore, if the emotions are well understood, it is possible to understand how humans will justify their actions, or the possible reasons that they will give for their actions. In Greene opinion, (364) â€Å"People tend to have emotional responses to personal moral violations, responses that incline them to judge against performing those actions.† However, it sometimes becomes hard to justify actions since some people make decisions without even thinking. It is only after making a decision that humans try to reason as they seek to justify their action or decide if it was right or wrong. Since it is well understood that people tend to make decisions depending on their intuitions, it only requires the researcher to understand the intuitions of the person making the decision to be able to tell the way they will justify their actions. Since there are no reasons for doing certain actions, it is possible to predict the way p eople will justify their moral judgment. It is possible to justify moral judgment using psychological research since people will justify actions as wrong or right depending on how the society views certain actions. Aristotle (173-174) claims that if a certain action is perceived to be wrong and a person commits it, it is obvious that he or she will try to find any reasons that will make the action appear right. Therefore, it only requires one to understand perceptions of the society regarding certain actions to be able to predict or tell how the doer of any action will justify it. Another reason why psychological research can be used to justify a given judgment is that some actions are performed out of obedience and not reason. It thus requires the researcher to know the motivation behind certain action. If an action of political aggression is performed, the doer will obviously justify the action by giving political reasons. For example, a dictator is likely to justify their dictato rial actions by demonstrating why humans require to be forced to act in a certain way. A person doing charity work will justify their actions by finding reasons on how their actions are helpful to others. Additionally, Milgram (184) posits that some actions are performed out of rebellion. If the researcher understands the nature of person performing a given action, then it is possible to justify the action without understanding the reason behind it. It only requires one to understand the nature of the person doing the action to be able to pre

Risk Management in supply chain management Essay

Risk Management in supply chain management - Essay Example Some of the salient features that define the organizational attributes in modern times are reduced inventories, effect supplies, staggeringly reduced cycle times, effective transportation mechanisms, further enhanced communication means both outside and inside the organization and factory. These all have been in practice in many organizations and are another name for successful supply chain management. Supply chain management is termed as chain and structure that defines all important elements of the process which contribute towards the output. In other words all the stake holders who have an impact in either way constitute a supply chain. It can be the transportation, can be the personnel, can be the policy, can be the objectives and can various other variables (Mentzer, 2011). The risks so faced can have various severe negative repercussions on the industry. It can lead to a financial loss, it can lead to mistrust, it can further lead to loss of contracts in severe cases, and most importantly could lead to losing the customers who are considered as the pivot towards the success or failure of any organization since their response and liking level of a certain industry can take any industry either way. Supply chain impacts rest of the industry activities in a direct manner. Supply chain risks identification and ultimately elimination and mitigation can result in better working environment, improved productivity, reduced un certainty, and various other factors that are non beneficial towards the organization. The entire risk phenomena can be split into four components which are: The Risk Sources: Supply Chain Itself: Risk mitigation Strategies: Adverse effects of Risks: Supply chain itself Risk Mitigation Strategies These are the four basic units which constitute a total discipline and each of these must be taken into consideration (Juttner, Peck, & Christopher, 2003). The relationship works in a dependent manner, the first is the source of risk, which falls und er the initial phase, and its identification is very vital. This is followed by its adverse affects, and underneath it is the supply chain itself that is faced by the challenges and risks. Finally, the most important factor is the constitution of risk mitigation strategies, which could be prior to the occurrence of event or post event, however risk mitigation strategies are more successful and of more impact if implemented prior to the occurrence. The strategies so made must be able to work in a preemptive manner and should work on the principle of prevention rather than correction. Risks could be either from internal sources, or the external sources, or the organization itself. The last couple of decades saw many events that made all the stakeholders realize that risk management in the field of supply chain has become inevitable and proper actions must be taken to minimize its impact. For this purpose, it has been largely implemented at various organizations of large, medium and sm all sizes, and more emphasis is being laid on its implementation at every level of industry. For this reason, a more systemic and structured approach is in practice internationally which ensures covering all the areas of that are necessary to be addressed. Level of

Social Responsibility Essay Example for Free

Social Responsibility Essay Economy is a main component is of having a healthy society not suffering from unemployment and inflation. How is it possible to have social responsible executives acting as agents and not as political officials? (Freidman, 1970). †¢The role of the government is to set a balance between the legislative, executive and judicial branches. Thus, there must be a set of regulations on corporate executives in order not play the role of an elected political official and by not having the complete control in navigating the economy through inflation or deflation. †¢Thus, as indicated by Freidman (1970), this is the basic reason why the doctrine of social responsibility involves the acceptance of the socialist view that political mechanisms, not market mechanisms, are the appropriate way to determine the allocation of scarce resources to alternative uses.(p.3) †¢Therefore, Friedman shares this concept with Cohen in relation to managers and critical leadership of executives. †¢In relation to which aligns best with green environment? Friedman, Cohen and Drucker concepts align with the current business climate promoting a safe environment. What differs is in relation to how far the balance is applied between the social responsibility of a corporate executive and by taking the role of government officials in controlling the economy. †¢Drucker explained the role which must be played by the businessmen in relation to public good, knowing the fact that governments are incapable of completing all obligations. Thus, the question arises: how far is the limit set on corporate executives? The question is crucial in order to avoid the consequences of what Freidman (1975) indicates: †He becomes in effect a public employee, a civil servant, even though he remains in name an employee of a private enterprise.†(p.3) †¢The problem arises when benefits and profits conflicts with the environmental protection. †¢The negligence towards the environment is justified by the reliance on the technological advancement of the future which will heal any damage committed nowadays by companies. Thus, is it justifiable to increase the benefits of a company even though its profits are aimed at supporting ecofriendly technological advancements? †¢Furthermore, statements such as indicated by (Freeman, York and St ewart, 2008), â€Å"Maybe global warming is a simple weather pattern that will reverse in five years.† (p.5) could be justified through scientific evidence conducted by companies having interest in neglecting the environment and increasing its profits. Thus, the critical leadership as indicated above by Drucker in relation to corporate executives is being fulfilled towards the companies interests as well the environment. †¢In addition, lobbying plays a huge role in political campaigns and elections which can surpass the socialist view of freidman by having leaders of private enterprise supporting candidates solely for their economic advantages and neglecting environmental protective policies whether through the national or international level. Cohen, W. A. (2009). What Drucker taught us about social responsibility. Leader To Leader 51, 29-34 http://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=truedb=bthAN=35755461site=ehost-live Beebe, G. (2012). Character formation. Leadership Excellence, 29, (6), 20 http://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=truedb=bthAN=76463146site=ehost-live Drucker, P.(1981). What is business ethics? Public Interest, 63, 18-36 http://www.nationalaffairs.com/doclib/20080708_1981632whatisbusinessethicspeterfdrucker.pdf Friedman, M. (1970). The social responsibility of business to increase its profits. New York Times 32-33, 122-124, 126 http://www.colorado.edu/studentgroups/libertarians/issues/friedman-soc-resp-business.html

Choices And Consequences That People Face

Choices And Consequences That People Face Every choice a person makes has consequences, whether they are positive or negative. Many times before a person makes a choice, he/she mentally calculates the cost and benefits of his/her choice. Other times some of the consequences may have not been intended or thought through. The feminist movement is an example of that. While the feminist movement accomplished great things for women, it also hindered women in other areas. Some of the problems related to the ironies of the feminist movement and the mixed message women were receiving. It began to change the way women made choices. Even though the feminist movement affected womens choices, many women have chosen to quit their job in order to raise a family. Because women were able to have jobs during the war, they realized they were no longer content to be housewives. In the 1960s most of the feminist movement was led by radical feminists. They began to fight for reproductive and employment rights. The Equal Pay Act was enacted in 1963. This meant that employers had to give employees the same amount of money for the same job. During this time abortion was made legal in all fifty states (Feminsm). The third round of feminism began in the 1990s. This was led by many types of feminism. It dealt with more than just prejudices against women but also races and economic standing (Feminsm). Feminism has many ironies that can be explored. It helps determine how the feminists made their choices and what they meant by them. Dr. Wendy Walsh, who is a clinical psychologist, has an interesting view on feminism. Even though she is a feminist herself, she believes that it did have negative consequences. She writes, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦feminism didnt liberate femininity. Feminism liberated masculine energy in women. It was a masculinist movementà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦It pushed femininity in the closet. (Walsh) That statement seems pretty accurate. Feminism did not encourage women to be more feminine. It encouraged women to be like men. Women were supposed to have the same jobs as men and achieve the same success. To many women, this was a good thing, but to others it was not. Walsh comments that women who liked their traditional role were hurt by that. They were then told that their job was not as important as a woman who works outside the home (Walsh). The feminist movement seemed to start because women said they were unsatisfied being housewives. If that is true, then women should be happier now because they are pursuing careers. However, according to a poll done by ClubMom, a free national membership organization for moms, the results are the exact opposite. Working moms and stay-at-home moms were asked to rate various aspects of their life and to grade their overall satisfaction with life. Working moms rated A thirty three percent of the time while stay-at-home moms rated A fifty two percent of the time. They also rated their job as a mom. Stay-at-home moms gave themselves an A fifty one percent of the time while working moms only did forty five percent of the time. Interestingly just eight percent of moms would continue to work full time if they did not have to worry about finances (New Poll). F. Carolyn Graglia, author of Domestic Tranquility: A Brief Against Feminism, also writes about the many ironies of feminism. Betty Friedan, Kate Millett, Germaine Greer and Gloria Steinem were some of the leading womens rights movement leaders in the 1960s. They did not support womens roles as a wife and mother, but Betty Friedan was the only one who had been a wife and mother (Graglia 13-14). It seems that the women should not speak against something they have never experienced. Maybe they wanted others to choose what they had chosen to make their choices more acceptable. Friedan did decide to divorce because she believed that she could not tell women to not get married while she herself was still in the awful institution. She claims that marriage destroyed [her] self-respect. (Graglia 13) Some women still believe that women can be more satisfied caring for their children opposed to having a successful career. Suzanne Venker writes in Feminsm:Opposing Viewpoint about why she believed a woman should choose to stay home. She was an English teacher and then a full time mom. Venker argues that women seem to be unhappy in the workplace. She cites that people have spent over five hundred million dollars on self-help books in 1999 (Finsanisk). Another source says that women count for ninety percent of self-help (Smith). So the vast majority of the self-help books were sold to women. Venker believes that if careers were truly fulfilling women like they are supposedly supposed to do, then people would not need to buy so many self-help books (Finsanick). Obviously, feminism had a tremendous impact on society. Women achieved the right to vote, have equal jobs, and own property. Many countries had women political leaders, and there were more females than males in many higher institutions. In the U.S., a woman ran for president and another almost became vice president. Husbands and wives also began to split the work more evenly in earning money, taking care of children, and maintaining the house (Feminism). Television changed from June Cleaver vacuuming in high heeled shoes to Clair Huxtable managing a house and her career as a lawyer. It gave women the opportunity to pursue a good career if that is what they wanted, or if they needed to due to finances. With all the changes that many believed to be positive, there were negative as well. Whether feminists intended for it to happen or not, the feminist movement, especially the radical one, brought about some negative consequences. The early feminists choices affected everyone. The feminist movement affected womens choices. The feminist seemed to focus on equality and women getting to have a choice. They wanted women to be able to choose to be a doctor or architect if that is what she wanted. But when women were given the right to a successful career, it almost became expected of them. Rebecca Scarlett said it like this, Suddenly, women were no longer allowed to choose. Suddenly women had to be everything they had always been, and be everything men had always been, as well, or they would have to feel inadequate and ashamed! (Scarlett) Now women who choose to stay home and take care of her children and house, are viewed as being lazy. People might think she is not smart enough hold or pursue another job (Scarlett). Feminists choices hurt womens right to choose. Sometimes people experience consequences as the result of their choices, and other times one must make a choice based on the consequences of choices made by the people around them. That is what many women have to do now. Radical feminists choose to devalue a womans role with her children and household. The consequences were that women are expected to pursue a career and now many women must make a choice: do they follow the feminist way or choose to take a different path. After she makes the choice she must see if her choices were worth the consequences. Other times women are forced to make choices whether they want to or not. Some mothers must work due to economic status or single parent homes. But many things are affected by the womans choice whether it was voluntary or necessary. In the article in the book Feminsm, Venker cites Dr. Phil by saying Life is about tough choices. I never encountered a successful person who didnt have to sacrifice in one area of her life to be successful in another. If you put more into your career, kids and family suffer; if you put more into family, career suffers. Thats the bottom line. (Finsanick) In spite of the feminist encouraging women to seek employment outside the home many women are still choosing to stay home. In fact, in 2005 there were about 5.6 million stay-at-home moms (The U.S. Census Bureau) So, why would a woman choose to go to PTA meetings and change diapers when she could be a doctor or lawyer? It seems that women are realizing that it is hard to do it all. They are deciding to put their careers on hold for a few years while they focus on their family. Iris Krasnow is an example of a woman who quit her job to stay home with her children. Krasnow has written a book about her journey entitled Surrendering to Motherhood about her journey. Glenn T. Stanton sums up her book in his article Two Women Tell All. Iris Krasnow grew up in the radical feminist period. She was an extremely successful journalist for UPI interviewing some of the most famous and interesting people in the world. Krasnow achieved the feminist goal but she was still empty. She began seeking different things to bring her fulfillment. She later married and they decided to have children. Krasnow and her husband wanted to have four [children] by forty and they did (Stanton). She then tried to have it all by pursuing her career and taking care of her family. Krasnow did this because she believed that her career gave her value and she could not imagine life without it (Stanton). One day when she was feeding her fours boy and surrounded by a mess, she realized something: There are no shackles in their house, this is no jail. These kids are your ticket to freedom like nothing you have ever tasted, the kind that is not hinged on TV appearances or writing for Life magazine or being a size 6 again. Its the liberation that comes from the sheer act of living itself. When you stop to be where you are, then your life can really begin I realized for the first time in my life I was exactly where I was supposed to be. (Krasnow 157) Iris Krasnow thought that she could have it all, but she realized that the choices she was making were not the best for her family and children. Her choices were based on what she believed was best for her family and what brought her personal fulfillment. She believes that surrendering to motherhood was the most liberating and powerful thing she had ever done in her life. (Krasnow 2-3) In F. Carolyn Graglias book she explores how feminism has hurt women and families and why she chose to stay home. Glenn Stanton also summarizes the book. Graglia grew up with a single mother and was poor. She decided the ticket out of poverty was to become a lawyer. After college Graglia obtained a job at a Wall Street law firm in the 1950s. At that time it was not common for a woman to have a career like that. She had a successful career until she chose to stay at home when her first child was born. Graglia was not forced to do it; she did it because she wanted to. Like others she chose the choice that wasnt popular. She chose to be a stay-at-home mom in the 1960s and 1970s. Graglia says that people were much more accepting of her choice to be a lawyer in the 1950s than they were of her choice to be a stay-at-home mom (Stanton). She believes that feminism robbed women of their surest source of fulfillment. (Graglia inside cover) She also believes that feminism tried to tell women th at their job as a mother and wife were not valuable. Candace Cameron Bure is another example of a woman who quit her job to stay home with her children. She is best known for her role as D.J. Tanner on Full House. She has also appeared on other T.V. shows, T.V. movies, and feature films. In 1996 she married Valeri Bure, who is now a retired hockey player. After she got married she decided to postpone her career to raise a family (Career) When doors were not opening for her in acting she believed it was God telling her to stay home. Bure considers it a great privilege to stay home (Rice). She counter argues what society tells women, Our society says, Work! Make more money! The career is great! But stay-at-home moms, youre so not cool. Get going. But theyre wrong. I thank God, who alone is able to keep our hearts in the right place. (Rice) After taking a break from her acting career she has returned to acting. Bure has been in several movies and plays Summer Van Horn on ABC Familys Make It Or Break It. (Career) People still vary greatly on the opinion if moms should work outside the home. People seem to judge others choices strongly. Parents and mothers, in particular are judged for every choice they make. They are judged from what they feed their children to where they send them to school. A womans choice to stay at home or pursue a career is not judged any less. No matter what the woman chooses, she will be judged for it. Some may agree with her choice and others may tell her that she made the wrong choice. Some people believe that people are becoming more accepting of whatever choice a woman decides to make. Women on either side of the issue know that each family must decide what choice is best for them. In the article Mothers Who Chose to Stay Home Elizabeth Drew School who made the choice to stay home does not judge the choices of other women. Her choice to stay home was best for her family (Gardner). The choices that a person makes also depend on the culture and expectations that a person was raised with. According to Jolene Ivey in the black culture staying home is not readily accepted. Since the civil rights movement gave them more rights to jobs and education, people did not think it was wise for them to reverse that. When Jolene Ivey decided to stay home with her children she felt like she was alone among her black friends. She then decided to start a support group called Mocha Moms to support black women wanting to stay home (Gardner). When a person has support and encouragement around them it makes his or her choices much easier. Some mothers choose to stay home because they realize their job will not accommodate their new lifestyle. Elizabeth Scholl is an example of that. She had a masters degree and was very career focused. She even planned having a baby around a project. When she learned that her employer was only going to grant her six weeks of maternity leave she knew that she would not be ready to leave her baby at that time. Scholl said that babies dont even hold their head up by six weeks. She requested to work part time, but her job would not allow it. Then she decided to quit. Scholl says that it was truly the hardest decision Ive ever made. But I came to the realization that these jobs are going to be there when I go back to work. (Gardner) Adjusting to being at home was very difficult for her in the beginning (Gardner). Many jobs are not very accommodating for mothers. Some careers do not allow women to work part time or to work from home. Also many times when families calculate child care expenses and taxes women are not making enough to justify working (Gardner). Women have many reasons as to why they choose to stay home in spite of the feminist movement telling women to pursue a career. Part of it is a cycle. Women decided that they wanted to alter their lifestyle. They chose to pursue careers and devalue being a housewife. That also resulted with women being unhappy. Because of that some women still decided to choose to stay home. Many women sacrifice their career in order to stay at home with their child. Whether they are quitting their job as a desk clerk, actress, or lawyer, many women are realizing how difficult it is to balance a career with family. Women are being set free by realizing they do not have to do it all. They can be fulfilled by being a wife and mother. Many women believe their choice to stay home is well worth it.

Advertising :: Business and Management Studies

Advertising History of Nestle: Nestlà © with headquarters in Vevey, Switzerland was founded in 1866 by Henri Nestlà © and is today the world's biggest food and beverage company. 1866 -1905 In the 1860s Henri Nestlà ©, a pharmacist, developed a food for babies who were unable to breastfeed. His first success was a premature infant who could not tolerate his mother's milk or any of the usual substitutes. People quickly recognized the value of the new product, after Nestlà ©'s new formula saved the child's life, and soon, Farine Lactà ©e Henri Nestlà © was being sold in much of Europe. 1905-1918 In 1905 Nestlà © merged with the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company. By the early 1900s, the company was operating factories in the United States, Britain, Germany and Spain. World War I created new demand for dairy products in the form of government contracts. By the end of the war, Nestlà ©'s production had more than doubled. 1918 -1938 After the war Government contracts dried up and consumers switched back to fresh milk. However, Nestlà ©'s management responded quickly, streamlining operations and reducing debt. The 1920s saw Nestlà ©'s first expansion into new products, with chocolate the Company's second most important activity 1938 -1944 Nestlà © felt the effects of World War II immediately. Profits dropped from $20 million in 1938 to $6 million in 1939. Factories were established in developing countries, particularly Latin America. Ironically, the war helped with the introduction of the Company's newest product, Nescafà ©, which was a staple drink of the US military. Nestlà ©'s production and sales rose in the wartime economy. 1944 -1975 The end of World War II was the beginning of a dynamic phase for Nestlà ©. Growth accelerated and companies were acquired. In 1947 came the merger with Maggi seasonings and soups. Crosse & Blackwell followed in 1950, as did Findus (1963), Libby's (1971) and Stouffer's (1973). Diversification came with a shareholding in L’Oreal in 1974. 1975 -1981 Nestlà ©'s growth in the developing world partially offset a slowdown in the Company's traditional markets. Nestlà © made its second venture outside the food industry by acquiring Alcon Laboratories Inc. 1981 -1996 Nestlà © divested a number of businesses1980 / 1984. In 1984, Nestlà ©'s improved bottom line allowed the Company to launch a new round of acquisitions, the most important being American food giant Carnation. The joint venture between Milkpak Ltd. And Nestle S.A. came about in 1988 and the company was renamed as Nestle Milkpak Ltd. Prior to that, Milkpak Ltd., produced UHT milk, butter, cream, desi ghee and fruit drinks at Sheikhupura factory. 21 branded product lines were added during 1990 to 1998. Nestle Milkpak operates the largest and an extremely efficient milk collection system in the country, which enables it to collect the

Climate Change Essay -- Essays Papers

â€Å"The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change projects that, if unchecked, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations by 2100 will range from 650 to 970 parts per million. As a result, the panel estimates, average global temperature would probably rise by 2.7 to 10.4 degrees between 1990 and 2100 †. Climate change Earth changing climate is attracting more serious attention of environmentalists and politicians in last the years due to heavy concern over the future of our earth. Human heavy dependence on the use of fossil fuels, 90% of commercial energy, is responsible for the 22 % of industrial emissions of gases. According to Michael Toman, â€Å"humans are greatly adding the presence of the gases, commonly referred to as greenhouse gases (GHG’s), by burning fossil fuels and through other industrial activities as well as various kinds of land use, such as deforestation. Such activities are significantly changing the level of gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere which in return can â€Å"work against us when they trap too much sunlight and block outward radiation †. In order to avoid global catastrophe associated with threat of global warming we need to act by reducing global emissions of greenhouse gas concentrations into atmosphere. Global climate change will affect everybody in the world. The negative impacts of global arming will include severe weather change, hobbled ecosystems, with less diversity, with less safe drinking water; inundation of coastal areas from rising sea levels; and greater spread of deceases. As an illustration author, have depicted the growing issue of cancer which can be the leading diseased caused by the erosion of ozone layer that protects people from ultraviolet radiation from the su... ...ler cumulative contribution to the problem and their need for economic growth. Notwithstanding this reality , these nations must be bound by some commitment in the future. 3. A mechanism to encourage transnational investment in technologies that reduce emissions- the creation of a market in emissions reductions will spur the development of the necessary technology and allow reductions to be achieved in the cheapest way possible with allocation of costs consistent with responsibility. In order to protect the earth’s climate we would need to find proper economically suitable and ecologically efficient method that will stop accelerating excess of GHGs. Thus, international cooperation with a organized method should be found for prevention of further damage to our eco system with little economic damage.

Plato †Philosophy Essay

The Republic is one of Plato’s longer works (more than 450 pages in length). It is written in dialogue form (as are most of Plato’s books), & it addresses major issues in almost all of the branches of philosophy. The central theme in the book seems to be the nature of justice, a topic in political philosophy, but Plato also has his characters explore issues in ? philosophical cosmology, ? philosophical theology, ? philosophical anthropology, ? ethics, ? aesthetics, and ? epistemology. The parts of the Republic that are contained in our text (pp. 107-123) focus on Plato’s idea (ideal?) of the Philosopher Ruler. According to Plato, ? the best possible political system (state) ? will be ruled (governed) ? by PHILOSOPHERS! (Is he kidding? ) Our reading selection contains the following themes/sections: ? ? Introduction on the unifying of philosophy & politics (107) Why â€Å"true philosophers† would make the best rulers (108-12) †¢ What is â€Å"true philosophy†? (108-11) †¢ Love of wisdom (108) †¢ Knowledge of true reality (108-9) †¢ The distinctions between knowledge, ignorance and opinion (109-11) †¢ How is a â€Å"true philosopher† different from a â€Å"lover of opinion†? (111-12) †¢ Who is best suited to rule the state – lovers of opinion or â€Å"true philosophers†? (112) ? ? Political leadership and knowledge of the Good (112-13) The ascent of the mind to knowledge of the Good (113-123) †¢ The analogy between the Good and the sun (113-15) †¢ The image of the divided line (115-18) †¢ The allegory of the cave (118-123) The selection in the text begins at a point in the Republic after Socrates, Glaucon, & other characters have been discussing the nature of justice and the marks of a just political system for some time. So we are coming into the middle of the conversation where Glaucon is pressing Socrates to state whether it is possible for a really just political system to come into existence. Before answering Glaucon’s question, Socrates wonders whether it is worthwhile to What does he say construct a theoretical model of a good political system even if such a system could about this? Do you agree? Why not actually exist. or why not? Back to Glaucon’s original question: Can a really just (or at least approximately just) political system exist? What would make it possible? (It is the separation of philosophy & political power. ) And this leads to . . . . unless political power & philosophy are brought together & those who now pursue either the one or the other exclusively are prevented from doing so -neither our political problems nor our human troubles in general can be ended . . . . † (Text, pp. 108-111) True Philosophy & True Philosophers What are the characteristics of a person who is naturally suited to practice philosophy? According to Socrates (Plato), a true philosopher ? loves the whole of wisdom and is satisfied with nothing less; ? recognizes the difference between particular things and the essences (or forms) of which particular things are likenesses (e.g. , beautiful things vs. Beauty itself); and ? knows the differences between knowledge, ignorance, and opinion. Plato argues that someone who really loves something must love that thing as a whole and not just some aspects of it. On that basis, he concludes that a true philosopher (lover of wisdom) must desire wisdom as a whole and not be content with having just some wisdom. Do you agree with this? Do wine-lovers really love all wines? A true philosopher recognizes the difference between particular things and the essences (or forms) of which particular things are likenesses (e. g. , beautiful things vs.Beauty itself). One of Plato’s major metaphysical theories is known as the â€Å"Theory of Forms. † According to that theory, ultimate reality is a realm of forms (essences) not accessible to the senses but only to the mind (intellect). He calls that level of reality the â€Å"intelligible realm† (because it is accessible only to the intellect). The perceptible world (i. e. , the world we perceive through our senses) is a reflection or copy of that higher intelligible world. (The Greek word for â€Å"form† or â€Å"essence† is eidos. ) Do you think it is possible for one thing to be really more beautiful than another thing? Well, how is that possible if Absolute Beauty does not exist? How can â€Å"A† be more beautiful than â€Å"B†? Doesn’t â€Å"A† have to be closer to Absolute Beauty than â€Å"B† is? But how can â€Å"A† be closer to (or â€Å"B† be further away from) Absolute Beauty if Absolute Beauty does not exist? A true philosopher knows the differences between ? Knowledge, ? ignorance, & ? opinion. Plato’s view of knowledge, ignorance, and opinion (Text, pp. 109-111) State of Mind Knowledge Opinion Ignorance Object What is (Being, Reality) What is & is not (Becoming) What is not (Nothingness, Unreality) Access Intellect Perception ? (Do you agree with this setup/theory?) Is Plato right about knowledge, ignorance, and opinion? Here’s a different view†¦. What about knowledge? The three basic questions in epistemology ? ? What is knowledge? How does it differ from opinion? How do we acquire knowledge? What are its sources? Rationalism vs. Empiricism. (What about Intuitionism and Revelationism? ) ? What are the extent and limits of knowledge? What can be known, and what cannot be known? A (fairly) standard definition of knowledge (and opinion) ? Knowledge is â€Å"justified (i. e. , verified) true belief. â€Å" †¢ To know is to believe. †¢ The belief must, in fact, be true. †¢ The belief must be â€Å"justified† (i.e. , verified, proved) by some standard and generally recognized means. ? Opinion is belief that may be true or may be false but that has not been or cannot be â€Å"justified† (i. e. , verified, proved) by any standard and generally recognized means. Of course, some opinions that are rationally defensible in the weak sense are â€Å"justified† in a limited way. And what about ignorance? Isn’t ignorance basically an absence of knowledge? Of course, opinion is also an absence of knowledge. So perhaps ignorance is a certain or special kind of opinion that is in some sense groundless (in a way based on nothing, as Plato says). ? There seem to be various types of ignorance, including unintelligent ignorance, as when someone asserts dogmatically that a false proposition is true or that a true proposition is false. There is also intelligent ignorance, as when someone does not know X and acknowledges forthrightly that he does not know it, etc. More thought is needed on this matter†¦. ? However, Plato’s view of ignorance as having non-being (nothingness) as its object does not seem correct (or at least not completely correct). ? ? ? Lovers of wisdom (philosophers) — they recognize the existence of absolute, transcendental essences such as Beauty & Justice in themselves, and they seek knowledge of such absolutes. ? Lovers of opinion -they recognize only particular perceptible things & do not believe in the existence of absolute essences such as Beauty itself. So what is the nature of the Absolute Good? (Text, p. 112-113) In approaching the problem of defining the nature of the Absolute Good, Socrates (Plato) sets forth three very famous illustrations of his overall perspective on knowledge & reality. These are I The Good & the Sun The Good is to the mind as the sun is to the eye, i.e. , just as the sun’s light enables the eye to see in the perceptible realm, so the Good illuminates the mind and enables it to â€Å"see† in the intelligible realm. (See text, pp. 113-115) 2 The divided line (Text, pp. 115-118) States of Consciousness Philosophical Wisdom E Objects of Consciousness The Good & Other Forms Knowledge D Intelligible Realm Scientific Knowledge Informed Opinion Delusion C B Mathematical & Scientific Objects Opinion Perceptible Objects Images Perceptible Realm A (Text, pp. 118-123) Can you link the images on the following slide to Plato’s depiction of the cave world on pp. 118-121 in the text? Now that the prisoner has â€Å"seen the light,† ? What might happen to him if he were to go back down into the cave-world? (pp. 119-121) ? How does he feel when he looks back down into the cave-world? (pp. 119) ? How does the allegory of the cave illustrate Plato’s overall view of knowledge and reality? (p. 121) More questions: ? What’s the philosophical difference between coming into the darkness from the light & coming into the light from the darkness? (p. 121) ? What, according to Plato, does the allegory of the cave tell us about what the process of education should be? (pp. 121-122) there are the big questions: Why should we want philosophers to rule? How are we going to get them to rule? Since we are asking them to come back down into the cave-world, won’t we be doing them harm by making their lives worse rather than better? (Text, pp. 122-123) What do you think of the following statements by Plato (Socrates)? â€Å"The best rulers of the state are those who know the Good, who don’t look to politics for their happiness, & who live a higher life than the political life. † â€Å"Political power should be held by those who do not want it. † The End (for now).